FRANK P.C.M. DE JONG, JOANNE SALVERDA &
MAARTEN DE LAAT (Dutch Railways and University of Nijmegen/NL)
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Towards integrated learning and working:
discussion of work/learning progress |
| 1 Introduction |
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The aim of this contribution is to stimulate the dialogue about the
support and the added value of the new technologies in the current
efforts to facilitate learning as part of working. The purpose of
these efforts is to reduce classroom training to a minimum for reasons
of safety and other pragmatic objections. These efforts favour the
formation of a learning organisation, a transformation which in itself
can be seen as a solution to improving companies' services and products
as a result of the production process. This production process is
in itself the reason for the necessity of becoming a learning organisation
because of the growing knowledge load factor and increasing problem
complexity at each level of the production process. On the other hand,
rapid changes in the world outside, such as consumer interests and
demands, quality standards and new technologies, require a flexible
response by the organisation owing to the necessary changes in the
company organisation itself as well as in the competences of its employees.
Such flexibility makes great demands on the way company members share
and construct knowledge in the process of working and learning together.
This flexibility also presupposes the value of translating business,
work and industrial problems into learning questions. Solutions to
these issues are to be found in changes at all company levels, e.g.
management and production actors around the person(s) concerned are
relevant problems. In that sense networked expertise, learning and
working are becoming more and more important, especially for companies
whose performances are built on co-ordinated co-operation between
their autonomous subsidiaries, such as Netherlands Railways and the
Dutch police. Building networked expertise supports a flexible response
to the problems these holding companies are confronted with internally
and the changes that occur in the market (BOLHUIS & SIMONS, 1999).
The managers of these holding companies therefore have to go beyond
stimulating collaboration among employees. They have to endeavour
to bring about a transformation towards a learning organisation by
stimulating their workers to share and develop knowledge together.
This objective should focus on stimulating the ability to learn individually,
in groups and through the organisation as a whole, in networks. The
learning potential of these networks has become a matter of interest
and social and cultural aspects of learning have become important
to understanding and fostering learning (ENGESTRÖM, 1999; NONAKA
& TAKEUCHI, 1997; WENGER, 1998). In organisations workers tend
to form networks of expertise to facilitate individual learning and
collaboration and to discuss work-related problems together (MCDERMOTT,
1999). Sometimes these networks transform into communities of practice.
In a community of practice (COP), participants who share a common
interest in the field they work in come together to help each other
out, solve problems and share and create knowledge collaboratively.
Over time these mutual interactions and relationships build up a shared
body of knowledge and a sense of identity. They constitute an informal,
social structure initiated by members and reflecting their collective
learning (WENGER, 1998).
In more formal learning routes involving the transformation to a learning
organisation the tendency is to phase out the practice of sending
people on courses given outside the workplace in favor of organizing
learning as close to the workplace and as integrated in employees'
work as possible (VAN DER KROGT, 1995). This might be realised by
making use of the above-mentioned informal social structures initiated
by employees. As long ago as the early seventies REVANS argued for
action learning by organising learning as close to work-related problems
as possible. He suggested organising learning teams to work on real
organizational problems and structuring the experience in such a way
that both useful solutions to these problems emerge and substantial
learning occurs for participants (VAILL, 1996). So the employees are
recognized as an important resource to the organization. According
to WENGER (1999) people in organizations form communities of practice
by helping out each other and discussing the latest developments.
These communities of practice are bound by a shared practice related
to a set of problems. From a point of implementation it is important
to search for more or less 'natural' opportunities with an implicit
high potential for learning and change, opportunities whereby learning
effort can be improved by explicitly harnessing and enabling the learning
potential of these work situations, e.g. formal and informal social
structures in the work context.
In this paper we first discuss an experience in which we try to create
learning as close as possible to the workplace and use the social
structure of the 'discussion of progress' as a learning tool in the
context of the learning route for becoming an assistant conductor.
Secondly we focus on the support provided by a groupware system in
the process of creating an online community of practice in the context
of a network expertise group formed around the problem of identifying
and describing general work processes used in the field of criminal
investigation in the Dutch police organisation. In the latter case
we used Knowledge Forum as a knowledge-building e-environment.
Our central questions in these two experiences are: Do workers appreciate
the possibility of knowledge sharing, learning from and with each
other? How promising is groupware in supporting these kinds of communities
of practice in organisations?
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| 2 First
experience |
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A new position with Dutch Railways: The Assistant conductor
Dutch Railways introduced a new position in 2000, that of Assistant
conductor. Here is given a brief summary of the reasons for this
new position. On the one hand there were the arrangements in the
area of social safety that were made between the Board of Directors
of Dutch Railways and the social partners, and on the other the
acute shortage of chief guards. Such a shortage means that trains
cannot run, because they do not meet safety standards. Because recruitment
did not provide enough staff, a solution was sought in the form
of a new, less onerous, position. Recruitment for the new position
would yield better results because:
· the requirements for the position were noticeably lower
than those for a chief guard
· the name Assistant conductor looked as though it would
do well in the labour market and was attractive.
What does an Assistant conductor do? In broad terms, an Assistant
conductor has the following four tasks:
· checking access;
· assisting in the event of incidents and disasters;
· checking aboard the train;
· assisting departures.
=> checking access
The task of 'checking access' comes under the heading of social
safety. The greatest amount of aggression on trains is caused by
passengers without a valid ticket. By checking tickets at the beginning
of the journey, the likelihood of aggression on the train is reduced
considerably. This task is always carried out in groups.
=> assisting in the event of incidents and disasters
In carrying out the task of 'assisting in the event of incidents
and disasters', the Assistant conductor provides a service to passengers.
For example, he or she shows passengers the way to replacement transport
should trains be unable to run because of an accident. This task
is always carried out in groups.
=> checking aboard the train
The task of 'checking aboard the train' means checking passengers'
tickets. This task can be carried out in groups or in pairs.
=> assisting departures
The last task is that of departure assistant. This is linked to
the acute shortage of chief guards. For reasons of safety, a train
with more than seven train sets may only depart if it has two chief
guards. The creation of the position of Assistant conductor means
that one chief guard can be replaced by an Assistant conductor,
enabling two trains to run.
To carry out his or her tasks, an Assistant conductor must be able
to work together with others and be capable of switching between
the various tasks.
Here is a summary of the reasons for the position of Assistant conductor
and a description of it. To be able to do the job, the new target
group will have to be trained.
The most important features of the training are:
· a mixture of training and education, work experience
days and work days;
· task orientation;
· orientation towards working in a team;
· learning during training.
=> A mixture of training and education, work experience
days and working days
The basic principle for this mixture is Kolb's learning cycle. Discovery,
learning, application, and so forth. The course is oriented towards
acquiring and applying knowledge and skills.
=> Task orientation
It has to be possible to deploy the target group quickly. This can
be realised through task-oriented training. Another benefit of task-oriented
training is that it is easy for the target group to get a clear
idea of it. Trainees soon get an idea of what is expected of them,
and they also quickly get an experience of success. If you learn
in a short time something you can put into practice, that motivates
you for the remainder of the learning process.
=> Orientation towards working together
A major part of the position is working together. The Assistant
conductor does not work alone, but always under the direction of
a chief guard or in a team with fellow Assistant conductors. Being
able to work well in a team is an important factor for success in
the position.
=> Briefing and debriefing
During the training, there are fixed times for reflection, which
we call briefing and debriefing. The choice of these times depends
on the work itself. This model is also used in the real work situation.
The briefing and debriefing model has been given a fixed place in
the training from the point of view of linking it to the work situation.
I shall go into more detail later about the briefing and debriefing
model used. Working according to this model links with the concept
of a 'community of practice'. The term 'knowledge construction'
is used. People construct new knowledge together through communicating
and sharing knowledge.
I shall now deal with the briefing and debriefing training item.
During the briefing, the trainer and the Assistant conductors examine
which assignments or tasks are planned for that day. The trainer
discusses the assignments and finds out whether there are any points
requiring particular attention. What is expected is expressed at
both individual and group levels. The trainees are also divided
into pairs. Who is working with whom today?
After carrying out the assignments or the work, everyone meets at
the agreed time for the debriefing. The debriefing covers the assignments
or work carried out that day, as arranged at the briefing. The supervisor
plays an important part here. He or she is the process supervisor
and starts the debriefing off, closes it, and makes sure that everyone
has their say.
What happens in a debriefing?
The discussion is oriented towards sharing knowledge and experience,
and thus towards learning from each other.
What is discussed are the assignments or the work covered in the
briefing. Everyone has carried out the same assignments or work.
Individual learning experiences are discussed in the group, which
leads to collective skill experience.
Learning from each other takes place in a secure environment in
which everyone is equal. The above demonstrates the characteristics
of a 'community of practice'.
What is so special about the briefing and debriefing model?
We are convinced that the briefing and debriefing model enables
employees to learn how to learn. They are provided with a moment
to reflect, in which they can stop working and share with others
their experience of what went well and what went less well. Individual
learning experiences are enriched by a collaborative learning situation
containing a 'negotiating and sharing of knowledge experience'.
As a result, employees find out that learning from each other and
thereby complementing each other can be an enriching experience
for the individual acquisition of skills and knowledge that are
required for the work. If an employee does not know how to tackle
a problem in practice, then an employee at the same level can relate
his odr her experience. Working according to this collective learning
model also affects the quality of working as a team. You have to
collaborate in order to achieve a result by sharing experiences
and learning from each other. People therefore learn from the moment
they start their employment to talk about their work and to learn
from each other in a familiar work discussion situation.
What do briefing and debriefing produce?
Talking about work during work is accepted. It is possible to give
each other feedback about doing the job, either as a compliment
or pointing out something that needs to be addressed, with the aim
of changing behaviour. Briefing and debriefing contribute to cultural
change in a learning organisation.
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| 3 Second
experience |
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In our second experience we tried to create an online community of
practice. In large organizations like the Dutch police force online
communities have an advantage in bringing people together independent
of time, space and local cultures. Computer supported collaborative
learning (CSCL) makes it possible for people to participate in communities
of practice and work at their own pace and in their own time. A program
that supports this kind of collaboration is Web Knowledge Forum. Web
Knowledge Forum is a discussion program designed to form a learning,
knowledge-building community over the Internet. It's a product of
the Computer Supported Intentional Learning Environments (CSILE) family,
developed at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE)
to support the collaborative construction of knowledge (SCARDAMALIA
& BEREITER, 1992). The participants operate in a shared workspace
in which they read and write notes. A note is a contribution that
can contain text, pictures and links to documents, html pages or other
notes in the shared knowledge workspace. Working with this program
stimulates the participants to talk about the subject, read relevant
resource materials, pose questions, offer theories, conduct experiments
and work together to make sense of new ideas. Individual understanding
is driven by the dual need to be familiar with the knowledge of others
and to advance that knowledge (HEWITT & SCARDAMALIA, 1998). By
working together participants develop greater competence in a particular
subject area, using what group members already know as an important
component and co-constructing plans of action to extend that knowledge
(HEWITT & SCARDAMALIA, 1998). The creation of knowledge therefore
is seen as a social product.
Originally this program was designed for use in the classroom to support
the construction of knowledge in a social context. The aim in the
development was to support a new kind of envionent that will make
it possible for schools to function as knowledge building communities
(SARDAMALIA & BEREITER, 1992). Within knowledge building communities
the focus is on knowledge construction. It's a knowledge-centred community
of practice.
The problem we face is how to facilitate the creation and support
of communities of practice in organisations that work in a Web-based
environment and make knowledge building the core of their activity.
In the first place there has to be identified a 'real' and meaningful
problem that exists in the organisation. A problem that is owned by
the participants and in the solution of which they are willing to
put effort. Second, the members of the organisation who feel interested
in this problem have to form a community in which they can participate
on a voluntary and functional basis. In this paper we focus on Knowledge
Forum's potential for serving as a meeting place for such communities.
A place where participants can work together, undertake collaborative
learning activities and share knowledge for the purpose of deepening
their expertise in the problem to be solved.
Our question is: Can groupware, e.g. Knowledge Forum, serve as a tool
to support communities of practice in an organisation?
We focus on the role of the worker as a learner in an unstructured
process of discussion of meaning in an online community of practice.
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| 4 The study |
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This study was conducted to gain experience with participants who
were engaged in an online learning community. The community consisted
of eight participants who voluntarily worked in the community. They
responded to a letter that was sent by the Approach of Criminal
Investigation in Police Education (ABRIO) to several police departments
explaining the problem that needed solving. The problem was about
how to identify and describe general work processes used in the
field of criminal investigation. As a whole the participants formed
a heterogeneous group (policymakers, criminal investigators and
experts).
During a period of two months they worked together using Web Knowledge
Forum. Together with the ABRIO we organised a meeting to explain
how to work with Web Knowledge Forum and to provide more details
about the problem they had to work on. After this session the workers
continued the discussion via the Internet by sharing information
and expertise together. There was much uncertainty about how to
identify work processes, so the participants agreed to start with
an open discussion on the subject of 'work processes', instead of
following a structured plan of action to tackle the problem. Knowledge
Forum played a central role in supporting the discussion because
all the written contributions are stored as notes in a shared database
available to all the participants. The discussion was divided into
certain subjects called views, in which the participants contributed
a note or comment on a note they had read by writing a build-on
note.
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